IF YOU WANT TO STUDY IN THE UNITED STATES: TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL STUDIES
In the United States, a wide variety of institutions prepare
people for technical and vocational occupations. Some schools
train for a single job or industry; others offer programs for
many different occupations. Programs can last from a few weeks to
several years. Courses tend to stress application rather than
theory.
Vocational studies are intended to lead to immediate
employment. Hands-on training is often a component of the study
program and the schools are often called "trade" schools.
Vocational studies vary in length from a week to two years and
lead to certificates of completion rather than degrees. Common
fields of study include construction, automotive mechanics,
drafting and secretarial services.
Technical education requires that the student learn
concepts, theory and design in addition to practical training.
Programs are offered at technical, community and junior colleges
and some four-year colleges and universities. Two-year programs
generally result in either associate of applied science degrees
or pre-baccalaureate technical degrees. Common studies include:
computer science, engineering technology, communication
technology, allied health, nursing, accounting, business
management, fire science, agribusiness, renewable natural
resources and horticulture. To obtain a degree, students are
required to successfully complete courses not only within their
specialty but also courses in general education such as English,
mathematics, sciences and history.
Technical and vocational schools, and community and junior
colleges award certificates or diplomas upon successful
completion of training. These credentials, however, are not
equivalent to a four-year college or university degree. Check
with officials of your home-country government or with
prospective employers to find whether the training you are
considering will be appropriate.
Technical and vocational schools usually do not offer
English-language training, nor do they provide housing or support
services for foreign students. However, such facilities are
available at some community and junior colleges. Sometimes
schools make arrangements with nearby housing units to rent to
students; usually, however, students must find housing in the
community after they arrive. Programming agencies may arrange
these services for sponsored students.
Technical and vocational schools, and community and junior
colleges often create special programs to meet the needs of
groups of students. To arrange these programs, home-country
governments or companies contract with U.S. educational or
training institutions directly or through agencies such as the
United States Agency for International Development (USAID) or
private programming agencies. These programs often include
English-language training followed by instruction at a technical
or vocational school, or a community or junior college.
The Training Environment: Technical and Vocational (Trade)
Schools
Technical and vocational schools are often called "trade" schools
because they teach a trade or occupation rather than just theory.
Trade schools generally offer training in only a few occupations,
and sometimes only in one. As a result, they differ considerably
from one another. A school for auto mechanics, for example, will
be very different from a school for cooks. All of them, however,
design their courses to meet the immediate requirements of
training for a skill, rather than to provide general education.
In most trade schools, the classroom will be similar to the
workplace and will provide practice in the skill or trade being
learned on the machines or equipment currently in use in the
businesses of that particular trade.
Most schools require that students or trainees attend
classes every day and be on time. If the job usually begins at
7:30 in the morning, classes will start at that time. Classes
usually last about six hours a day, with appropriate time off for
lunch.
Unless English training is provided through a special
group-training program, the schools expect that students will be
able to read, write, speak and understand English, and will know
basic mathematics. Courses begin with basic lessons and build up
to advanced skills. Throughout the course, the instructor tests
each student. To continue in the course, each student must
demonstrate mastery of the required skills. Instructors also
enforce rules for behavior "on the job," and often they can be
strict in their enforcement. However, the atmosphere is one of
encouragement, not fear.
The Training Environment: Community and Junior Colleges
Community and junior colleges also offer training programs
directed toward specific technical and vocational goals.
Community and junior colleges differ, however, in that they
combine technical-skills training with general education.
Students who need additional work in English or mathematics can
easily find help in a community or junior college, along with
courses in business or other subjects that would be helpful in
their field of choice.
Although technical classrooms and equipment in a community
or junior college resemble the workplace as much as possible,
classes meet one or two hours at a time rather than all day, as
they do in an academic setting. The overall atmosphere reflects
the classroom more than the actual workplace. Instructors offer
help and encouragement, with an emphasis on practical skills
rather than theory.
Finding Out About Technical and Vocational Programs
Before you choose a technical or vocational training program, you
should find out as much information about it as possible. Seek
advice from educational advising centers about appropriate types
of training for your chosen career. Investigate opportunities for
employment in your country in the career that you are
considering, after your training is over.
It is very important to check that a school has met basic
standards of educational performance. In the United States, there
is not a Ministry of Education which directly supervises
technical and vocational schools. Although many states require
that technical and vocational schools be licensed, regulations
are not the same from state to state, and may not be a reflection
of educational quality.
Accreditation of a school is a primary key to educational
quality. Accreditation of technical and vocational schools in the
United States is done by such bodies as:
- Accrediting Commission for Independent Colleges and Schools
of the Career College Association;
- Accrediting Commission for Trade and Technical Schools of
the Career College Association;
- Commission on Vocational, Technical and Career Institutions
of the New England Association of Schools and Colleges; and
- Commission on Occupational Education Institutions of the
Southern Association of Colleges and Schools.
Community and junior colleges are accredited by regional
accrediting bodies, including:
- Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges of
the Western Association of Schools and Colleges;
- Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of
Colleges and Schools;
- Commission on Colleges of the Northwest Association of
Schools and Colleges;
- Commission on Institutions of Higher Education of the North
Central Association of Colleges and Schools;
- Commission on Institutions of Higher Education of the New
England Association of Schools and Colleges; and
- Commission on Higher Education of the Middle States
Association of Colleges and Schools.
An annual publication for the American Council on Education, Accredited Institutions of Postsecondary Education, gives a complete listing of all accredited institutions, including all
vocational and technical schools and community and junior
colleges in the United States. This book may be ordered from:
Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc.
Front and Brown Sts.
Riverside, NJ 08075 USA
For aviation-related fields such as pilot training, look for
certification by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
Selecting a Technical or Vocational Training Program
To select a technical or vocational training program:
- Read brochures and consult materials available in the
nearest educational advising center, and then write letters
to the schools you have chosen to find if their courses are
current, accredited or of high quality, and appropriate for
your field and the conditions in your country.
- Find out how long the training in your chosen field will
take.
- Find the total cost by adding living expenses to published
costs of tuition, supplies and fees. Living expenses vary by
region and by living arrangement; assume monthly expenses
for basics such as housing and food, and add for hidden
costs such as clothing, transportation and health insurance.
(See the booklet Undergraduate Study in this series for a
breakdown of living expenses while you are in the United
States.)
- Make sure that the institution is authorized to issue a Form
I-20 M-N (certificate of eligibility for non-immigrant M-1
student status), or a Form I-20 A-B (certificate of
eligibility for non-immigrant F-1 status). If you will be
participating in a formal exchange program or with
government-provided financial assistance, make sure the
exchange program or institution is authorized to issue a
Form IAP-66 (certificate of eligibility for non-immigrant
J-1 exchange visitor status). If the institution or program
sponsor is unable to issue one of these forms, you will not
be able to apply for the appropriate non-immigrant visa.
- Find out whether you will be able to work directly with
equipment that you will be using on the job (look for the
phrase "hands-on experience").
- Ask prospective employers if the credentials you will obtain
will be valid for employment in your country.
- Check to see that you meet entry requirements for your
chosen school. You must be 18-years-old to attend a
community college. Unless an English-language program is
provided through a special group training program, a score
of 450 to 550 on the Test of English As a Foreign Language
(TOEFL) is a basic entry requirement. Schools that require a
personal interview or an on-site aptitude test may be
difficult to enter from overseas.
- Compare schools you are considering with respect to
location, cost, support facilities for foreign students if
any, and the certificate you will receive if you
successfully complete the program.
- Find out how long the school has been in operation, how
large it is, and if possible, what the employment record of
its students has been.
- Using the "Sources of Information" at the end of this
booklet, compare the technical and vocational schools and/or
community and junior colleges which interest you.
American Council on International Intercultural Education (ACIIE)
The American Council on International Intercultural Education
(ACIIE) is an affiliate of the American Association of Community
Colleges. The member institutions of the ACIIE (listed below by
location) have made a commitment to international education. Each
of the institutions will accept admission from qualified foreign
applicants. Many other institutions not listed are also actively
involved in international education and accept foreign
applications. Other institutions, for various reasons, do not accept applications from foreign students. If you are unable to
determine from a school's catalog or other reference sources
whether or not foreign students are eligible for admission, write
directly to that school's office of admissions.
Member Institutions of the ACIIE
- Alaska
- University of Alaska, Anchorage, AK 99508
- Arizona
- Arizona Western College, Yuma, AZ 85366
- Maricopa Community College District, Phoenix, AZ 85034
- Pima Community College, Tucson, AZ 85705
- California
- Chabot College, Hayward, CA 94545
- City College of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94112
- Coast Community College District, Costa Mesa, CA 92626
- Contra Costa Community College District, Martinez, CA 94553
- Cosumnes River College, Sacramento, CA 95823
- DeAnza Community College, Cupertino, CA 95014
- Foothill College, Los Altos, CA 95022
- Grossmont-Cuyamaca Community College, El Cajon, CA 92020
- Hartnell College, Salinas, CA 93901
- Los Angeles Community College District, Los Angeles,CA 90017
- Mission College, Santa Clara, CA 95054
- Palomar Community College, San Marcos, CA 92069
- Saddleback College, Mission Viejo, CA 92692
- Santa Barbara City College, Santa Barbara, CA 93109
- State Center Community College District, Fresno, CA 93704
- Yosemite Community College District, Modesto, CA 95352
- Colorado
- Pikes Peak Community College, Colorado Springs, CO 80906
- Connecticut
- Manchester Community College, Manchester, CT 06040
- Florida
- Brevard Community College, Cocoa, FL 32922
- Daytona Beach Community College, Daytona Beach, FL 32115
- Florida Community College, Jacksonville, FL 32202
- Lake City Community College, Lake City, FL 32055
- Miami-Dade Community College, Miami, FL 22132-2296
- Hawaii
- Kapiolani Community College, Honolulu, HI 96816
- Kauai Community College, Lihue, HI 96766
- Tokai University at Honolulu, Honolulu, HI 96822
- University of Hawaii Community College Systems, 2327 Dole St., Honolulu, HI 96822
- University of Hawaii Employment Training Center, 33 S. King St., Honolulu, HI 96813-4323
- Windward Community College, Kaneohe, HI 96744
- Illinois
- Black Hawk College, Moline, IL 61265
- College of DuPage, Glen Ellyn, IL 60137
- College of Lake County, Grayslake, IL 60030
- Elgin Community College, Elgin, IL 60123
- Harry S. Truman College, Chicago, IL 60640
- Illinois Central College, East Peoria, IL 60635
- Illinois Eastern Community College, Olney, IL 62430
- John A. Logan College, Carterville, IL 62918
- Joliet Junior College, Joliet, IL 60436
- Moraine Valley Community College, Palos Hills, IL 60465
- Oakton Community College, Des Plaines, IL 60016
- Parkland College, Champaign, IL 61821
- South Suburban College, South Holland, IL 60473
- William Rainey Harper College, Palatine, IL 60067
- Iowa
- Des Moines Area Community College, Ankeny, IA 50021
- Eastern Iowa Community College District, Davenport,IA 52801
- Iowa Lakes Community College, Estherville, IA 51334
- Kirkwood Community College, Cedar Rapids, IA 52406
- Kansas
- Coffeyville Community College, Coffeyville, KS 67337
- Dodge City Community College, Dodge City, KS 67801
- Johnson County Community College, Overland Park, KS 66210
- Kansas City Kansas Community College, Kansas City, KS 66112
- Massachusetts
- Fisher College, 118 Beacon St., Boston, MA 02116
- Middlesex Community College, Bedford, MA 01730
- North Shore Community College, Danvers, MA 01923
- Michigan
- Charles Stewart Mott Community College, Flint, MI 48503
- Delta College, University Center, MI 48710
- Lake Michigan College, Benton Harbor, MI 49022
- Lansing Community College, Lansing, MI 48901
- Macomb Community College, Warren, MI 48093
- Oakland Community College, Royal Oak, MI 48067
- St. Clair County Community College, Port Huron, MI 48061
- Minnesota
- Normandale Community College, Bloomington, MN 55431
- North Hennepin Community College, Brooklyn Park, MN 55445
- Northwest Technical College, Thief River Falls, MN 56701
- Missouri
- St. Louis Community College, St. Louis, MO 63102
- Montana
- Salish Kootenai College, Pablo, MT 59855
- Nebraska
- Metropolitan Community College, Omaha, NE 68103
- New Jersey
- Bergen Community College, Paramus, NJ 07652
- County College of Morris, Randolph, NJ 07869
- New Mexico
- San Juan College, Farmington, NM 87401
- University of New Mexico-Gallup, Gallup, NM 87301
- New York
- Broome Community College, Binghamton, NY 13902
- Dutchess Community College, Poughkeepsie, NY 12601
- Erie Community College, Buffalo, NY 14203
- Fashion Institute of Technology, New York, NY 10001
- Rockland Community College, Suffern, NY 10901
- Ohio
- Cuyahoga Community College District, Cleveland, OH 44115
- Sinclair Community College, Dayton, OH 45402
- Oklahoma
- Tulsa Junior College, Tulsa, OK 74135
- Oregon
- Chemeketa Community College, Salem, OR 97309
- Lane Community College, Eugene, OR 97405
- Portland Community College, Portland, OR 97219
- South Carolina
- Horry-Georgetown Technical College, Conway, SC 29526
- Tennessee
- Motlow State Community College, Tullahoma, TN 37388
- Texas
- Amarillo College, Amarillo, TX 79178
- Austin Community College, Austin, TX 78752
- Dallas County Community College District, Dallas, TX 75202
- Houston Community College System, Houston, TX 77004
- Utah
- Salt Lake Community College, Salt Lake City, UT 84130
- Utah Valley Community College, Orem, UT 84058
- Virginia
- J. Sargeant Reynolds Community College, Richmond, VA 23261
- Tidewater Community College, Virginia Beach, VA 23456
- Washington
- Community Colleges of Spokane, Spokane, WA 99207
- Edmonds Community College, Lynnwood, WA 98036
- Pierce College, Tacoma, WA 98374
- Skagit Valley College, Mt. Vernon, WA 98273
- South Puget Sound Community College, Olympia, WA 98502
- Whatcom Community College, Bellingham, WA 98226
- Wisconsin
- Fox Valley Technical College, Appleton, WI 54913
- Madison Area Technical College, Madison, WI 53704
- Milwaukee Area Technical College, Milwaukee, WI 53233
- Northcentral Technical College, Wausau, WI 54401
- Waukesha County Technical College, Pewaukee, WI 53072
- Wyoming
- Sheridan College, Sheridan, WY 82801
Application
Most technical and vocational schools, and community and junior
colleges admit applicants who have a desire to take the
vocational course, aptitude for the skills required, funds to pay
for the course and the equivalent of a U.S. high school diploma.
In some cases, applicants can use the General Educational
Development Test (G.E.D.) instead of a high school diploma. This
test is sometimes available in your home country through the
educational advising office.
After you have selected four or five appropriate
institutions, write a letter of inquiry (on p. xx) to each one,
giving basic information about your plans and qualifications.
In the meantime, apply to take the Test of English As A
Foreign Language (TOEFL). Because English is the language of
instruction, foreign students must show that they can speak and
understand -- and often read and write -- English. Usually
technical and vocational schools, and community and junior
colleges require a TOEFL score of 450 to 550.
Sample Letter Of Inquiry For Information and Application Forms
(Please type or print very carefully)
(Send to):
Office of Admissions or Director of Admissions
Name of School
City and State (Zip Code)
U.S.A.
Dear Sir/Madame:
Please send information and application forms about training in
(job/occupation skill) to me at the address below:
Your Mailing Address:
Mr./Mrs./Ms. (Given/First
Name) (FAMILY/LAST NAME)
(P.O. Box/Street and Number)
(City), (Country), (Mailing Code)
I have completed (number) years of school in (country). The
highest degree, diploma, or certificate I have earned is (name of
type). My TOEFL score is (_) (or) I have not yet taken TOEFL, but
plan to take it on (date). I have the following amount of money
available for study and living expenses (U.S.$). I can begin
study (date).
Thank you,
(Your signature)
Other schools, particularly computer training institutes,
may ask that an applicant also take an aptitude examination.
Occasionally, schools may request a personal interview.
Allow at least four months from registration to receipt of
the score by the institutions you have chosen. When application
forms arrive, complete them neatly, completely and carefully, and
return them, together with any required application fee, by
airmail. If you are accepted, you will receive a letter of
acceptance and the appropriate certificate of eligibility with
which to apply for a non-immigrant visa. That certificate will be
a Form I-20 M-N, Form I-20 A-B or Form IAP-66.
If you are accepted at a "proprietary" (private) trade
school, the school will probably require a deposit and will ask
you to sign a binding contract listing a schedule of payments, a
tuition refund policy and a cancellation policy. Be sure that you
understand the contract before you sign it.
Applying for a Visa
Most foreign students attend U.S. schools and other educational
institutions as F-1 non-immigrants, including students attending
community, technical and junior colleges. Some students and
trainees attending technical, trade and vocational institutions,
or non-academic schools will attend as M-1 non-immigrants. If a
foreign student or trainee is participating in a formal exchange
program or with the financial sponsorship of the U.S. or a
foreign government, international organization or certain other
sponsors, he or she will attend as a J-1 non-immigrant.
To apply for one of these non-immigrant visas, go to the
U.S. embassy or consulate nearest you. It is best to consult the
U.S. diplomatic post for the hours it is open, when it accepts
non-immigrant visa applications, and what if any special
documentation requirements may be imposed at that facility. If
there is more than one U.S. consular post in your country, it is
also best to ascertain which post you are required to visit in
order to apply for a visa.
When you go to the U.S. embassy or consulate, take the
following items with you:
- Your passport, in most cases valid for at least six months
after the date you plan to complete your studies in the United States;
- The Form I-20 M-N, Form I-20 A-B or Form IAP-66 as completed
by the U.S. institution or sponsor, together with your
letter of admission to the school in the United States;
- A photograph, 5 cm by 5 cm, with your signature in English
on the back;
- Your secondary school records and diploma;
- Affidavit of financial support form and/or evidence of
financial support such as a personal bank statement;
- Evidence of English-language ability; and
- Any other documents of local importance.
Some consular posts require the use of a visa application
form and in certain cases there is a fee for the visa issuance.
Consult the U.S. embassy or consulate in your country regarding
these and other local arrangements.
Present all documents to a U.S. consular officer. Generally,
a consular officer will personally interview you, examine your
documents and review your plans for training in the United
States.
Before going to the interview, be sure that you complete all
required portions of the certificate of eligibility (Forms I-20
M-N, I-20 A-B and IAP-66). The statements that you will be asked
to sign will include:
- That your purpose in visiting the United States is to remain
temporarily to pursue a full course of study at the school
specified on the certificate of eligibility;
- That you will not accept employment or engage in a business
while in the United States without appropriate permission;
- That adequate finances are available for the entire period
of your study;
- That you will notify the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization
Service (INS) promptly of any change of address; and
- That you authorize the school you will be attending to
release certain information about you to the INS (for M-1
and F-1 students).
Please note that the certificate of eligibility is not a
visa; nor does it guarantee that a visa will be issued. The
determination to issue a visa rests solely with the consular
officer.
If you are granted a visa, the consular officer will stamp
it into your passport, noting the name of the institution issuing
the certificate of eligibility. This indicates your intention to
pursue a full course of study at that institution. For entry into
the United States, the institution noted on your visa must
correspond with the certificate of eligibility you are carrying
and the institution you plan on attending.
If you decide to attend a different institution than the one
noted on the visa stamped in your passport and you have received
a certificate of eligibility from that institution, contact the
U.S. consular post prior to your departure for the United States
to attempt to have the change reflected on your visa.
Spouses and dependents of M-1, F-1 and J-1 non-immigrants
may apply for M-2, F-2 and J-2 visas in order to accompany you
during your temporary stay in the United States. Applications for these derivative visas may be made at the same time that you seek
to get a visa, or these visas may be applied for separately. If
spouses or dependents will be applying and/or traveling
separately, they will need separate copies for the certificate of
eligibility in order to get a visa and enter the United States.
Please note that spouses and dependents of M-1 and F-1 students
are not allowed to accept employment or engage in business while
in the United States. In certain cases, J-2 non-immigrants may
seek employment permission. For more information about this,
consult the sponsoring organization that issued the Form IAP-66.
INS regulations controlling the admission of M-1 and F-1
students are similar. However, M-1 students (students enrolled in
a full-time program at an authorized vocational, technical or
non-academic institution) have certain additional restrictions,
including:
- An M-1 student's program may not last longer than one year.
- An M-1 student may not change fields of study.
- An M-1 student will not receive permission to change schools
after the first six months at the school unless he/she is
unable to continue the program at the original school.
- Employment will not be authorized under any circumstances
for M-1 students, even for on-campus employment or in cases
of internships or cooperative education programs.
- Practical training is permitted, but only after the
classroom training program is complete. Prior approval of
the INS is required.
- An M-1 student may not change his/her non-immigrant status
to that of an F-1 student.
Regulations controlling J-1 students and trainees are
substantially different than those controlling M-1 and F-1
students. For more details about the specific requirements of a
program you may participate in as a J-1 Exchange Visitor, contact
the sponsoring organization.
Finally, it is important to note that, under no
circumstances should there be an attempt to enter the United
States on a B-1 "business" or B-2 "tourist" visa with the
intention of changing your non-immigrant status once in the
United States to M-1, F-1 or J-1 non-immigrant status. Such
attempts are grounds for denial of the change of status request
and could result in deportation and prosecution for visa fraud.
Trainees sponsored by U.S. government-funded programs or by
certain other sponsors enter the U.S. as J-1 sponsored students.
Regulations governing J-1 sponsored students differ; information
will be furnished by the sponsoring agency.
Sources of Further Information
The following references may be available in your advising center
or USIS library. This is only a sampling of available resources
and does not imply endorsement.
ACCREDITED INSTITUTIONS
- Accredited Institutions of Postsecondary Accreditation. Macmillan
Publishing Company, Front and Brown Sts., Riverside, NJ 08075.
- An annual publication for the American Council on Education which lists all accredited postsecondary institutions in the
United States, including trade and technical schools, and
community and junior colleges.
TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS
- American Trade School Directory. Croner Publications, Inc.,
211-05 Jamaica Ave., Queens Village, NY 11428.
- An annual listing of technical and vocational schools listed
by city and state, with indication of accreditation status, visa
information and subspecialties offered. Monthly supplements in a
loose-leaf format.
- Career Education That Works for America. Career College
Association, 750 First St., N.E., Suite 900, Washington, D.C.
20002-4242.
- An annual publication listing and program description of
trade, technical and junior colleges accredited by the
Accrediting Commission for Independent Colleges and Schools and
the Accrediting Commission for Trade and Technical Schools of the
Career College Association.
- Directory of FAA-Certified Aviation Maintenance Technical
Schools. Annual. Department of Transportation/ FAA, Publications
Section, M442.32, Washington, D.C. 20590.
- List of Certified Pilot Schools. Annual. Order Number: AC 140 2U.
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20590.
- Technical, Trade and Business School Data Handbook, National
Edition, 1994-96. Orchard House, Inc., Balls Hill Rd., Concord,
MA 01742.
- Multiple volume publication organized by geographic region
with comprehensive school and program descriptions.
COMMUNITY AND JUNIOR COLLEGES
- Peterson's Annual Guide to Two-Year Colleges. Peterson's Guides,
P.O. Box 2123, Princeton, NJ 08543.
- Contains profiles of over 1,450 accredited two-year
institutions, with directories of schools by geographic area and
by major.
- Who's Who in Community Colleges. Annual. American Association of
Community Colleges. One Dupont Circle, N.W., Suite 410,
Washington, D.C. 20036.
- Annual directory lists all two-year institutions in the
United States, Canada and some foreign countries with names of
key administrators, addresses, phone and fax numbers. Publication
also includes information about AACC policies and affiliated
organizations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The five-pamphlet series published under the title, If You Want
to Study in the United States, was produced by the United States
Information Agency, Office of Academic Programs. In addition to
the pamphlet series, If You Want to Study in the United States is
also available on videotape.
USIA wishes to thank the series' author, Dr. Martina S.
Davies, former director of AMIDEAST-West Bank and Gaza; the
editor of this revised edition, Marjorie Peace Lenn, executive
director of the Center for Quality Assurance in International
Education; and Yukie Tokuyama (formerly of the American
Association of Community and Junior Colleges) for their
contributions to the revision of this pamphlet, and the many
others both in the United States and abroad whose invaluable
assistance made the revision of this series possible.
United States Information Agency
September 1993
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